CHAPTER 3
Early States and Civilizations
The earliest human groups lived in an interaction with the natural environment, with adaptations and dependencies. Gradually, a shift occurred from gathering wild plant-foods (foraging) to crop production (horti-/agriculture) and from hunting to protective herding and raising livestock (pastoralism). In this process of agrarianization, people started to live in settlements and to make investments.
- Control and dependency loops evolved between the natural environment (‘resources’), organization (‘state’), culture (‘religion’) and skills (‘technology’). There were extra-human, inter-human and intra-human forces and threats at work in the form of natural phenomena like climate change and earthquakes, wars and conquests, and internal mismanagement;
- (Re)construction of stories speak about an alliance between peasant and soldier, a role for priests in economic organization, overexploitation of the population by elites and occasionally devastating impacts from natural disasters and environmental degradation;
- In the great river plains, civilizations were hierarchically structured. Elewhere, the biogeography of islands or valleys with large ecological gradients were more polycentric and trade-oriented. Nature shaped social organization;
- States emerged and, in some places, they expanded into empires with increasing socio-political and techno-economic complexity. They lasted for generations – until they deteriorated or collapsed from a combination of the three forces and threats mentioned above;
- Several theories have been proposed to explain the disintegration processes. Some emphasize external natural catastrophes, others highlight declining returns on increasing complexity, environmental feedbacks, perverse institutional mechanisms and erosion of elites;
- The state (still) represents in its different appearances the most complex organizational form by which human groups resolve the perennial tension between the individual and the group and between competition and cooperation.
Test your understanding of this chapter by reviewing the study questions below.
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